The Nature of Scientific Knowledge and Biology

Science: It is a systematic collection of information obtained as a result of various observations and experiments, proven to be correct and organized with certain rules.

Aim: It is about finding facts and revealing the relationships between these facts.

Scientific method: It is carried out to solve a problem; It is the whole of systematic studies based on logic, measurement, observation and experiments.

The basis of the scientific method: It means asking questions and seeking answers to these questions. However, these should be scientific questions based on observations and experiments, and the answers should be scientific answers that can be tested with subsequent observations and experiments.

Features of Scientific Knowledge:

• Scientific knowledge is empirical.
• The scientific method combines observation and logic.
• Some of the scientific knowledge is obtained by inference.
• Scientific knowledge should be objective.

• Science is universal and science has no nation.
• Scientific information; It may change for reasons such as progress in technology and knowledge, introducing new findings, reinterpreting old findings, and sociocultural changes.

The common approach of scientists on scientific studies is called paradigm.
Objectivity in science (objectivity); It is information that can be proven to be true, measurable and whose validity is accepted by everyone.
Subjectivity in science; information can vary from person to person.

• Science is universal and science has no nation.
• Scientific information; It may change for reasons such as progress in technology and knowledge, introducing new findings, reinterpreting old findings, and sociocultural changes.

SCIENTIFIC Method Steps

1. Observation: It is the examination made by using sense organs or measuring instruments.
   a. Qualitative observation: Observations made only with sense organs. Results may vary from person to person. The flammability rate is high. It is not reliable for that.
   b. Quantitative observation: It is the observation made by using measuring instruments together with the sense organs. The results do not change from person to person. It is the preferred observation in the scientific method.
   Example: “My friend is tall.” discourse qualitative observation, “My friend’s height is 1.85 cm.” The discourse is quantitative observation.
2. Defining the Problem: This process is necessary for scientists to form a hypothesis that can point to the solution of the problem.
3. Hypothesizing: It is a testable explanation that proposes a solution to the problem to be investigated, based on prior observations and experiences, and prepared in the light of existing knowledge.
   Characteristics of a good hypothesis

• Should be open to experiments and observations.
• It must be appropriate to all collected data.
• It should be open to new facts and predictions.
• It should be able to be changed when necessary.

4. Estimating: It is to draw logical conclusions from the established hypothesis.
   Predictions are, “If …… if ……. is.” expressed in sentences.
   Example: Hypothesis: “Bacteria (A) causes disease (K).”
   Prediction: “If this hypothesis is correct, “bacteria (A) must be present in the body of people with (K) disease.”
5. Controlled experiment: In an experiment, only one factor is kept variable and the effect of this variable factor on the experiment is examined.

• Controlled experiments generally include two groups: Control group, Experimental group.
• The control group is used to compare the effects of the application made in the experimental group.
• In controlled experiments, only one of the ambient conditions is changed. The variable that affects the outcome of the experiment when it changes is called the independent variable. The variable (result) that changes depending on the independent variable is called the dependent variable.

• The results of observation and controlled experiments are evaluated and interpreted by scientists. If the data supports the hypothesis, the experiments are repeated and the results are shared with other scientists. If other scientists reach the same conclusions, the hypothesis becomes true.
• Truth is observations that are accepted as true by everyone and that the same conclusions are reached under the same conditions.
• If the results of controlled experiments do not support the hypothesis, the experiments are reviewed for uncontrolled variables or the hypothesis is changed.
  Theory (theory) and Law in Science
• Theories and laws and the relationship between them are issues where people often make mistakes. Contrary to popular belief, a proven theory does not become a law. There is no direct, complementary relationship between law and theory.
• Scientific laws describe how an event occurs under certain conditions.
• Theories are explanations about events occurring in nature with strong evidence behind them.

While laws answer the question of “how” natural events happen, theories explain laws and try to answer the question “why”. A common misconception is that hypotheses become theories, and then theories become laws if proven by sufficient evidence. However, there is no such hierarchical relationship between theories and laws. Theory and law are different kinds of scientific knowledge, and theories never become laws.

For example; Explaining how gravity happens is law, explaining what causes gravity is theory.

An Exemplary SCIENTIFIC Study

1. Observing-Data Collection: The seeds we leave to germinate do not germinate.
2. Problem: What is the reason for seeds not germinating?
3. Hypothesis: Seeds do not germinate because there is not enough water.
4. Prediction: If the seeds do not germinate because there is not enough water, they will germinate when the amount of water given is increased.
5. Controlled Experiments: Seeds are divided into groups. The daily amount of water given to the seeds in group I is increased from 100 mL to 200 mL. II. 100 mL of water is continued to be given to the seeds in the group.
6. Evaluation of the Findings and Conclusion: All the seeds in the I. group germinated, II. It was observed that the seeds in the group did not germinate.
7. Conclusion: The reason why seeds do not germinate is lack of water. 200 mL of water should be given for germination.
   NOTE: More than one hypothesis can be established regarding a scientific problem. More than one guess can also be made. In the example above, a hypothesis and a prediction are included.

What Is BIology?

• Biology is the science that studies living things on scientific basis.
• Investigates all the characteristics of living things and the basic life events they perform.
  What is the main purpose of the science of biology?
• The main purpose of biology is to preserve the natural balance and to draw useful conclusions from the living world to humanity.

SOME SUBSCIENCES OF BIOLOGY

Biology consists of two main parts:
1. Botany: studies the plant kingdom.
2. Zoology: It studies the animal kingdom.
Some sub-disciplines:

• Cytology: It examines the structure, shape and functions of cells and the structure and functions of organelles in the cell.
• Histology: Examines the tissues.
• Anatomy: It is the science that studies the structure of cells, tissues and organs.
• Physiology: It is the science that studies the functioning of cells, tissues and organs.
• Morphology: It studies the external appearance and general structural features of living things.
• Ecology (environmental science): The study of the interactions of living things with their environment and with each other.
• Molecular Biology: Examines the structural properties of cells at the molecular level.
• Biotechnology: Examines the various features of living things, their use in daily life, gene exchanges by using technology and engineering knowledge.
• Genetics (Science of Heredity): Examines the gene structures of living things, their hereditary characteristics, the transmission of genes between generations and their effects on living things.
• Hydrobiology: It studies the creatures living in water, the properties of water and the life of living things in this environment.
• Embryology: It examines the development and differentiation that occur from the fertilized egg in the living thing.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF BIOLOGY TO THE SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN DAILY LIFE

• New discoveries in the field of biology excite people every day. Developments in biotechnology and health, in particular, enable people to look to the future with confidence. The fact that people from our country take part in these studies increases our excitement and interest in this science. For example, Mr. Aziz SANCAR.
• Wastes that are deemed dangerous and useless by biotechnological studies have been rendered safe and useful by microorganisms.
• Today, interferons used to fight viruses and insulin hormone used in the treatment of diabetes are produced by gene transfer method.
• Plants resistant to various drugs and pests have been obtained by gene transfer.
• It is stated that many diseases can be eliminated thanks to the “stem cell” studies.
• The information provided by biology in the solution of increasing environmental problems is gaining importance day by day. For example, microorganisms used for purposes such as making yoghurt and cheese in daily life and antibiotic production in healthcare are now also used in solving environmental problems.
• As an alternative energy source, fuels of vegetable and animal origin (biofuels) are used as fuel raw materials.
• With the identification of DNA fingerprints, many forensic cases and paternity cases can be resolved today.
• New and effective solutions are created for those who cannot have children.